‘Convivencia’ refers to the period in the medieval Iberian Peninsula (c. 711–1492) when Muslims, Christians, and Jews lived in close proximity under Muslim-ruled Al-Andalus and later under expanding Christian kingdoms.

The term was famously coined by the Spanish philologist Américo Castro in his 1948 work, España en su historia, to argue that Spanish national identity was uniquely forged through the cultural blending of these three religious groups.

This era is often cited as a ‘Golden Age’ of cross-cultural exchange.

Scholars from all three faiths collaborated in translating ancient Greek texts, leading to major advancements in philosophy, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.

Buildings like the Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Alhambra in Granada exhibit a blend of Islamic, Christian, and Jewish artistic influences.

Under Muslim rule, Jews and Christians were granted Dhimmi (protected) status. While they were required to pay a special tax called jizyah, they were allowed to practice their religion and maintain their own legal systems.

Modern historians debate whether convivencia was a true state of ‘religious tolerance’ or merely a pragmatic necessity.

Proponents like María Rosa Menocal in ‘The Ornament of the World’ portray it as an ‘interfaith utopia’ where pluralism was a core social value.

Other scholars argue it was a ‘stabilised pluralism’ driven by economic and political necessity rather than mutual affection.

Critics such as Darío Fernández-Morera suggest the concept has been politicised as a ‘myth’ of multiculturalism to serve contemporary agendas.

The era effectively ended in 1492 with the fall of Granada and the Alhambra Decree, which led to the expulsion or forced conversion of Jews and Muslims in Spain.

I believe the era of the ‘Convivencia’ proves that peaceful and constructive co-existence is possible in a multi-cultural society.

For me, the ‘Convivencia’ was a ‘Golden Age’ in the history of Civilization.

The challenge for all politicians is how institutionally, to create a legal, social and political foundation for what Mediators facilitate all the time – a ‘dialogue of peaceful and constructive co-existence’.

Proscribing/banning freedom of speech and public protest about injustice and oppression, e.g. War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity – including the deliberate destruction of Cultural Heritage, not only closes down the dialogue, it is also the road of the extreme right wing to ‘Fascism’.

What I am seeing across the Atlantic and in the UK, is a destructive politics of ‘hatred’ and ‘division’, which is serving the interests of a small and wealthy elite who are bound together by a shared right wing ‘religious’ and ‘colonial’ ideology which manifests itself in ‘hegemony’.

History teaches us that this can only lead to endless wars and revolution.

Comments added:

• Have you also noticed that the elite who are bound together by a shared right wing ‘religious’ and ‘colonial’ ideology like to blow-up i.e. destroy ancient monuments which form part of the tangible cultural heritage of the victims of their colonialism? Have you ever asked yourself why they do this? What do you think the answer is?
• See also – https://www.amazon.co.uk/If-Tolerate-This-establishment-respectable/dp/1037411579
  
  ‘The far right is now mainstream in British politics. If We Tolerate This is a short, gripping and essential book on how we got here, and what we can do about it.
  
  In 2025 we saw the biggest far-right rally in Britain’s history, after a summer of flag-waving protests. The year before, racist mobs tried to attack mosques and hotels housing asylum seekers.
  
  Something incredibly dangerous has been unleashed, yet our political class seems at best indifferent and at worst to welcome it.
  
  In this urgent and riveting book, Daniel Trilling explains how we arrived at this extraordinary moment and what we can do to change course before it’s too late.
  
  Praise for Daniel Trilling:
  
  ‘Racism and the rise of the far right in Britain are often discussed but rarely understood. Daniel Trilling is an exception . . . his voice must be heard’ – Owen Jones, author of Chavs: The Demonization of the Working Class
  
  ‘Combining forensic enquiry with moral passion, Daniel Trilling has emerged as one of our most intrepid and resourceful reporters’ – Pankaj Mishra, Windham-Campbell Prize-winning author of The World After Gaza’ (Amazon Books).
• See also – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuZ-kjOecf4
• See also – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K9jgwP61-98
• See also – ‘The scale of Islamophobia against Muslims is really frightening” | Peter Oborne | Real Talk/ Middle East Eye’:
  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18M1SktF_gE
• This post is written solely in my capacity as a graduate of one of the UK’s top schools of Political Science, and not in any capacity as a legal practitioner or mediator. I predicted the rise of the far right in the UK as far back as 2016. I predicted that this would also happen in the US and in France, Germany and Italy – which is exactly what is happening today.
• Unsafe to be Christian in Jerusalem: Fear, harassment and empty holy sites | Oborne Unscripted: Unsafe to be Christian in Jerusalem: Fear, harassment and empty holy sites | Oborne Unscripted
• Not just Iran, ‘Israel would kill millions of people’ | Rabbi Elhanan Beck | UNAPOLOGETIC: Not just Iran, ‘Israel would kill millions of people’ | Rabbi Elhanan Beck | UNAPOLOGETIC
• We went undercover to EXPOSE Israeli settlers: We went undercover to EXPOSE Israeli settlers
• ‘The destruction of heritage, and prohibition of cultural behaviours are used by certain conflict actors as “shaping operations”, where violence against the “Other” becomes normalised as communities, either incrementally or at once, lose their property, freedoms, and humanity. Culture is a shared set of values, ideas, and behaviours that enable a social group to function and survive. Cultural heritage maintains identity, social cohesion, and a sense of security through intangible practices, including rituals, music, language and skills, and tangible property such as artefacts, archaeology and places. Roosevelt’s four freedoms link cultural behaviour – to freedom from fear and want. Targeting cultural heritage is an act of power that legitimises one group while diminishing others and is often a precursor for the most offensive form of cultural destruction: genocide.’ (Clack, Timothy & Mark Dunkley (2022) Cultural Heritage in Modern Conflict, Past, Propaganda, Parade, Routledge, p.301 – These are the words of Colonel Stone).
  
  Hence, there is an unspoken connection between:
  1.  the deliberate destruction of cultural heritage as a strategy by an invading force in war and occupation;
  2.  Ethnic Cleansing; and
  3.  Genocide.
• Israel’s cultural annihilation of Gaza | The Listening Post: Penny Drop City 10 Youtube
• How Israel is destroying Palestinian cultural heritage:How Israel is destroying Palestinian cultural heritage
• Damage to Iranian cultural heritage sites: Interview with Professor Sussan Babaie: Damage to Iranian cultural heritage sites: Interview with Professor Sussan Babaie

‘Since the start of the war in Iran, over 130 cultural heritage sites have been damaged or destroyed by US-Israeli strikes. In an interview with Professor Sussan Babaie, expert in the arts of Iran and Islam, Dr Margaret Squires asks: what damage has been caused to Iranian cultural heritage sites, and what is the significance of this?’